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To detect the acid and basic radicals in given salt (In Lead Acetate).

To detect the acid and basic radicals in given salt , (in lead acetate)..

Experiment – 4

Class – XII

Subject – Chemistry

Apparatus:-

Test tube, test tube stand, test tube holder, burner, beaker, litmus paper, match box etc.

Physical Characteristic:-

1.      State: - solid crystalline

2.      Color:- Colorless

3.      Odour:- Vinegar smell

4.      Solubility:- Soluble in both cold and hot water.

lead acetate experiments

Detection of Acid Radicals

1.

Heating with dilute H So

Take the pinch of salt 2 – 3 ml of dil. H So  was added.

No gas evolved

No , So , Co HCo or S  ions absent

2.

Heating with Conc. H So

Take the pich salt 2 – 3 ml of H So added

A gas evolved with vinegar smell

CH COO may be present.

 

3.

CH COO ion observed

(a)

 

A small quantity of slat taken on plam and was mixed with oxalic acid paste of it was prepared with few drops of H O and rubbed of smell

.

Smell like vinegar was observed

(COOH)2  + 2 CH COOH      à     (COONa) + 2 CH COO (Acetic vinegar)             

(b)

Take the original solution in water 2 – 3 ml of neutral ferric chloride was added and heated.

Deep red coloration which is changed to reddish brown ppt

CH COO   ion confirmed

3CH COONa + FeCl       à     (CH COO) Fe + NaCl

(CH COO) Fe + 2 H O    à     (CH COO) (OH) Fe + 2 CH COO

                                                                    ( Reddish brown ppt)

(c.)

Take small quantity of salt in test tube add conc. H So and heat. Now add ethylolchol. Shake and pour the content of tube in beaker full of water stir.

 

Pleasant fruity smell

CH COO   ion confirmed

2CH COONa + H So         à     Na So + 2 CH COOH

CH COOH + C H OH      à     CH COOC H + H O

                                                              Ethyl Acetate (Fruity Smell)

  

Detection of Basic Radicals:-

1.

Take the original solution and add few drop of dil. HCl . The ppt was heated with water.

White ppt was observed ppt dissolved

Pb  may be present

Pb + 2 HCL      à      PbCl + 2 H            ( White ppt )

The solution was divided into two parts

 

(a)

Potassium Iodide test

In first part KI to be added

Deep yellow ppt was formed

Pb  may be confirmed

PbCl + 2 KI      à     PbI + KCl       (Yellow ppt of lead Acetate) 

(b)

Potassium chromate solution added in second part

Yellow ppt was observed

Pb  confirmed

PbCl + K Cro         à      Pb Cro + 2 KCl            (Yellow ppt of lead chromate)

Conclusion:-

On the basis of above test, we conclude that given salt contain.

Acid Radical :           CH 3 COO -

Basic Radical:           Pb 2+

To prepare 250 ml of M/20 of oxalic acid solution.

To determine the molarity and Strength of KMnO solution by treating with standard solution oxalic acid

To determine the molarity and strength of KMnO solution by treating with standard solution of Mohr’s Salt.

To detect acid and Basic radical to given salt (in Lead Acetate).

To detect acid and Basic radical to given salt (In Strontium Chloride).

To detect acid and Basic radical to given salt (In Aluminum Chloride).

To detect acid and basic radical in given salt (In Ammonium Phosphate).

To detect acid and basic radical in given salt (In Barium Nitrate).

To detect the acid and basic radical in given salt (Magnesium Sulphate).

To detect the acid and basic radical in given salt (calcium Chloride).

To detect the presence of phenolic group in organic compound.

To detect the presence of carboxylic group in the given organic compound.

The distinguish between Aldehyde and Ketonic group in given compound A & B.

To detect the presence of Alcoholic group.

To detect the presence of Carbohydrate, Protein, Starch in given compound A, B, & C.

To prepare Potash alum from Scrap Aluminum.

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Lead Sulfide Test (Lead Acetate Test): Description, Principle, Procedure & Result Interpretation

What is lead sulfide test.

Lead sulfide test also referred to as lead acetate test is a biochemical test for the detection of amino acids like cysteine and cystine. The test is a specific test for the detection of amino acids containing sulfur, S-S group in cysteine and S-H group in cysteine. It is important to note that even though the test is specific for the detection of amino acids, methionine does not give a positive result in this test.

Objective Of Lead Sulpfide Test

  • To detect the presence of sulfur-containing amino acids in a sample.
  • To detect protein -containing cysteine and cystine in a given sample.
  • To distinguish between sulfur-containing and non-sulfur containing amino acids.

Principle Of Lead Acetate Test

The sulfur-containing amino acid such as cysteine, cysteine, and methionine (sulfhydryl/thiol group) reacts with lead acetate under alkaline conditions to form a brown precipitate. These sulfur-containing amino acids are degraded in strongly alkaline media to release sulfide ion (S 2- ) in the form of H 2 S (hydrogen sulfide). The sulfide ions can react with lead (II) acetate to form a brownish-black precipitate.

Lead acetate test (Lead sulfide test): Principle, Reaction, Reagents,  Procedure and Result Interpretation | Online Biochemistry Notes

Reagent And Material Required

  • 2% lead acetate solution in water
  • Test Sample/solution

Material Required

  • Test tube stand

Procedure For Lead Acetate Test

  • Add 1ml test solution in dry test tube.
  • Similarly, take 1 ml distilled water in another test tube as control.
  • Add 2ml of 40 % NaOH and mix well.
  • Now add 1ml Foli’s reagen (lead acetate) to all test tubes.
  • Heat over the flame of Business burner.
  • Observe any color change and note it down.

Lead Acetate Test Results Interpretation

  • Positive Test:  A positive test of the Lead sulfide test is indicated by the formation of black precipitate at the bottom of the test tube. This confirms the presence of cysteine or cystine in the solution.
  • Negative Test:  A negative result of the Lead sulfide test is indicated by the absence or lack of black residue in the test tube. This confirms the absence of cysteine or cystine.

Uses of Lead Sulfide Test

  • The test is used to detect sulfur-containing amino acids like cysteine and cystine.
  • It helps to distinguish between different groups of amino acids.
  • The detection of cystine in urine is a pathological symptom of diseases like cystine stones in the kidneys and bladder.

Related posts:

  • Tests for Amino Group [—NH3]: Procedure And Results Interpretation
  • Triple Sugar Iron (TSI) Test – Principle, Procedure, Uses and Interpretation
  • Tollens’ Test: Description, Principle, Procedure And Result Interpretation
  • Coagulase Test- Principle, Procedure, Types, Result And Uses
  • Fehling’s Test: Description, Reagent, Principle, Procedure & Result Interpretation
  • Biuret Test: Principle, Reagent, Procedure &Result Interpretation

Online Biochemistry Notes

Biochemistry notes by anup basnet, lead acetate test (lead sulfide test): principle, reaction, reagents, procedure and result interpretation.

April 16, 2020 Anup Basnet Biochemical tests 0

lead acetate experiments

Lead acetate test ( Lead sulfide test)

(Detection of sulphur containing amino acids)

This test is specific for sulphur containing amino acids (Cysteine, Cystine, and Methionine)

The sulfur-containing amino acid such as cysteine, cysteine, and methionine (sulfhydryl/thiol group) reacts with lead acetate under alkaline conditions to form a brown precipitate. These sulfur-containing amino acids are degraded in strongly alkaline media to release sulfide ion (S 2- ) in the form of H 2 S (hydrogen sulfide). The sulfide ions can react with lead (II) acetate to form a brownish-black precipitate.

lead acetate experiments

  • Amino acids: 1 % solution of amino acids like glycine, cysteine, etc.
  • Protein solution: egg albumin in distilled water (10%)
  • 20% lead acetate
  • To 2 ml of the test solution add 2 ml of 20% NaOH and boil for a minute.
  • Cool it and add a drop of lead acetate solution.
  • Observe the formation of black lead sulfide precipitate.

Note: Carry out this test in the hood if possible.

Result Interpretation:

lead acetate experiments

Positive test:  Formation of black precipitate indicate the presence of sulfur-containing amino acid.

Negative test:  No formation of black precipitate indicate the absence of sulfur-containing amino acid.

References:

  • https://www.onlinebiologynotes.com/lead-sulfide-test-detection-of-amino-acid-containing-sulfhydral-group-sh/
  • glossary.oilfield.slb.com/en/Terms/l/lead_acetate_test.aspx
  • http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=53516
  • https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331609279_How_to_Test_For_Sulfur_in_Materials_Using_Lead_Acetate_Paper
  • https://www.pdscholar.com/engineering/question/in-lead-acetate-test-of-sulphur-detection-lassaign/5a11adaa0a975a6b98ef72df
  • lead acetate test
  • lead sulfide test
  • sulfhydryl group
  • sulphur containing amino acids
  • thiol group

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  • Chemical Compound Formulas
  • Lead Acetate

Lead Acetate - Pb(C 2 H 3 O 2 ) 2

What is lead acetate.

Lead Acetate is also known as lead(II) acetate, is a white crystalline chemical compound with the formula Pb(C 2 H 3 O 2 ) 2 .

Lead Acetate is poisonous in nature. It is used in making white lead in medicines and as a mordant in dyeing. Lead acetate was first produced in the United States in 1944. Lead belongs to the group IV A elements and most of the compounds of lead have +2 state. Lead acetate is stable under ordinary conditions of use and storage.

Lead acetate, also known as sugar of lead, is a white crystal made by the action of acetic acid on litharge. Lead acetate is used in gold toning baths to modify the pH.

Other names – Lead diacetate, Lead(II) acetate

Pb(C H O ) Lead Acetate
Density 3.25 g/cm³
Molecular Weight/ Molar Mass 325.29 g/mol
Hydrogen Bond Acceptor 4
Melting Point 280 °C
Chemical Formula Pb(C H O )

Table of Contents

  • Lead Acetate Structure – Pb(C 2 H 3 O 2 ) 2
  • Physical Properties of Lead Acetate- Pb(C 2 H 3 O 2 ) 2
  • Chemical Properties of Lead Acetate- Pb(C 2 H 3 O 2 ) 2
  • Uses Of Lead Acetate- Pb(C 2 H 3 O 2 ) 2

Frequently Asked Questions

Lead acetate structure – pb(c 2 h 3 o 2 ) 2.

Lead Acetate Structure

Lead Acetate Structure

Physical Properties of Lead Acetate – Pb(C 2 H 3 O 2 ) 2

Odour No odour
Appearance White to gray crystalline solid
Covalently-Bonded Unit 3
Heat of formation 298.15 KkJ/mol
Complexity 25.5
Solubility Soluble in water

Chemical Properties of Lead Acetate – Pb(C 2 H 3 O 2 ) 2

  • Lead acetate reacts with hydrogen sulfide to form lead sulfide and acetic acid . The chemical equation is given below.

Pb(C 2 H 3 O 2 ) 2 + H 2 S → PbS + 2HC 2 H 3 O 2

  • Lead acetate reacts with potassium chromate form lead chromate and potassium acetate. The chemical equation is given below.

K 2 CrO 4 + Pb(C 2 H 3 O 2 ) 2 → PbCrO 4 + 2KC 2 H 3 O 2

Uses of Lead Acetate – Pb(C 2 H 3 O 2 ) 2

  • Used as a water repellent, for mildew protection, and as a mordant for cotton dyes.
  • Used as an analytical reagent in varnishes, chromium pigments, and in asbestos clutches or brake linings, lead chloride is used.
  • Used as a catalyst and as a flame retardant.
  • Used in printing and dyeing operations.
  • Used as a secret ingredient used to sweeten wine and preserve fruit.

What is the use of lead acetate?

Lead acetate is used in silk printing and dyeing as a mordant, as a dryer in paints and varnishes, and in the preparation of other lead compounds.

Is Lead acetate dangerous?

Acetate from lead can cause serious health problems. Several health risks posed include lung inflammation, stomach pain, diarrhea, elevated blood and urine lead rates, cancer, and, in the most extreme cases, even death. Thus lead acetate is not used as a sweetener any more.

How do you identify lead acetate?

Lead(II) acetate, Pb(CH 3 COO) 2 , is a white crystalline material with a sweet taste and is also classified by one of the following trivial names: lead sugar, Saturn salt and Goulard powder, respectively. Lead acetate is water and glycerin soluble, and is toxic (like most lead compounds).

Is Lead acetate acidic or basic?

The base acetate ion is found in both lead acetate and potassium acetate solutions; it is basic since its conjugate acid, acetic acid, is a weak acid.

What does lead acetate taste like?

Lead acetate, also known as lead sugar, is a salt that (ironically) has a sweet flavor in poisons of fairly rare nature, and is more likely to taste sour, signaling to the taster that they are unsafe for consumption.

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Testing for sulfate ion (Sulphate | SO 4 2- ) in Qualitative Analysis

There are several tests for sulfate ion to identify from other anions in qualitative analysis. Some of metal sulfate compounds are soluble in water and some metal sulfates form precipitates. Sulfate compounds of several metal cations form precipitates with specific colours. In this tutorial we will discuss followings regarding how to identify sulfate ion by considering solubility, colours and more physical and chemical characteristics with example questions.

Compounds of sulfates

Sulfate ion exists as many compounds. Some of them dissolve in water and some of them give white or different colour precipitates . Sulfate compounds of 3d metals show colours . Sulfuric acid ( H 2 SO 4 ) is a strong acid and completely dissociate in water to sulfate ion and two hydrogen plus ions. H 2 SO 4 is a dibasic acid.

Sulfates of group IA metal cations

Here, we will discuss about properties, colours, solubility in water and other characteristics of sulfates of alkali metal cations and alkali earth metal cations.

Sulfate of alkali metal cations

Alkali metal sulfateChemical formulaSolubility (g/100 ml)
Lithium sulfateLi SO 34.9 at 25 C
Sodium sulfateNa SO 28.1 at 25 C
Potassium sulfateK SO 120 at 25 C

Sulfate of alkali earth metal cations

Soluble compounds of sulfate ion (in water), sulfate ion testing experiments.

Following experiments are conducted to test occurrence of sulfate ion. A summarized tests

Testing for Sulfate ion with aqueous barium chloride solution

Add aqueous barium chloride (BaCl 2 ) solution to the sulfate ion solution and observe the differences. Barium sulfate (BaSO 4 ), is a white precipitate . BaSO 4 is not soluble in strong acids and dilute acids .

Case study: In the presence of sulfite ion

In the presence of sulfite ion, a white precipitate (Barium sulfite) can be given similar to Barium sulfate. Therefore, a fault decision can be made by thinking of the presence of sulfate ion. To remove sulfite ion first, add dilute HCl to remove sulfite ion before adding barium chloride.

Testing of sulfate ion with strontium chloride solution

Add aqueous strontium chloride (SrCl 2 ) solution to the sulfate ion solution and observe the physical changes. Strontium chloride ( SrCl 2 ) gives Strontium sulfate ( SrSO 4 ) which is a white precipitate with sulfate ion solutions. Strontium sulfate is insoluble in acids .

Testing of sulfate ion with Silver nitrate

Silver nitrate (AgNO 3 ) does not form a precipitate with aqueous dilute sulfate ion solutions. Silver sulfate (Ag 2 SO 4 ) is fairly soluble in water. However concentrated SIlver sulfate solution may be deposited as a precipitate.

Testing of Sulfate ion and calcium chloride

Calcium sulfate is soluble to some extent in water. If Ca 2+ and SO 4 2- ions concentration in the water are high, a white precipitate ( CaSO 4 ) forms. When adding water, precipitate dissolves to give a colourless solution again .

Testing of Sulfate ion solution with lead acetate (Pb(CH 3 COO) 2 )

When sodium sulfate is added to the aqueous lead acetate solution, Lead sulfate (PbSO 4 ), a white precipitate is given. PbSO 4 is soluble in caustic alkalis and in ammonium acetate solutions. But PbSO 4 is not soluble in dilute acids .

3d metal sulfate compounds

In here, we are going to study solubility and colours of 3d metal sulfate compounds.

Manganese sulfate | MnSO 4

Manganese sulfate is a white orthorhombic crystals at solid state. MnSO 4 dissolves in water.

Copper sulfate | CuSO 4

Aqueous copper sulfate solution is blue colour. But when dehydrated copper sulfate is white a powder.

Testing for sulfate ions in dilute sulfuric acid solution

Precipitate list of sulfate ion with colours, questions about sulfate ion solution, identifying sulphate and halide compounds of sodium .

Barium forms barium sulphate, the white precipitate in sodium sulphate solution and no changes in sodium halide solution because all barium halides are soluble and colourless solutions.

How to separate sulfate ion and sulfite ion?

Add dilute HCl to the both solutions. Then one precipitate dissolves and give colourless solution. That is for solution which contains sulfite ion.

How do you identify calcium carbonate and calcium sulfate?

This can be done by simple experiment. Add both solids to little amount two water samples separately. Two white precipitates form. Now add water to both flask. At one moment you can see, one white precipitate dissolve completely and give colourless solutions. That is calcium sulfate.

Can I identify sulfate ion from dilute HCl?

But if metal ion has a abililty to make a precipitate or colour with chloride ion, we can see a precipitate is forming in the solution.

How to identify dilute hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid solutions?

Both acids dissolve in water very wel . Hydrochloric acid gives chloride ions and sulfuric acid gives sulfate ions. So testing should be tested for chloride ion and sulfate ion to identify two anions.

Add barium hydroxide to samples of HCl and H 2 SO 4

BaCl 2 is a colourless aqueous solution. But BaSO 4 is a white precipitate and deposited in the bottom of the solution which is clearly observed. So dilute hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid solutions can be identified.

Silver sulfate and HCl reaction

When dilute HCl is added to the aqueous silver sulfate solution, a white precipitate (silver chloride - AgCl) is given.

Li 2 SO 4 soluble or insoluble in water?

Lithium sulfate is soluble in water and it completely decomposes to lithium and sulfate ion.

How do you identify copper sulfate?

How we distinguish sulphate ion using hcl and barium chloride.

After HCl adding, then add barium chloride to the sulfate solution. Then a white precipitate, BaSO 4 is given.

colour of sulphate ion?

Sulphate ion does not cause for colours. When sulphate ion is combined with cation such as 3d metal ion which have the ability to show colours, those metal sulphate compounds show colours.

What is the colour of SO 4 2- ion

Metal SO 4 2- solutions can be colourless or has colours. As an example aqueous CuSO 4 is a blue colour solution. But, aqueous MgSO 4 solution is a colourless one. So you should understand, colour of the solution may not depend always on SO 4 2- ion.

Qualitative Analysis for anions and cations for Grade 12 Class

Related tutorials to sulfate ion

 

 

 

 

 

 

is split in colorless Pb ions and I ions.

 

 

 

   

+ 2I 2PbI

is slightly soluble in hot water, it is insoluble in cold water. It is remarkable that this solid is yellow, while the ions, from which it is made are colorless. The yellow solid is a mainly covalent compound.

 

 

   

 

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How to Test For Sulfur in Materials Using Lead Acetate Test Paper – Canadian Conservation Institute (CCI) Notes 17/5

Introduction, procedure: how to use lead acetate paper to test for the presence of sulfur, the science behind the lead acetate test, acknowledgements.

Materials that contain sulfur can give off gases such as hydrogen sulfide or carbonyl sulfide, which cause silver and copper to tarnish. If possible, such materials should not be placed near objects that contain silver and copper, especially in a closed space like a display case. But what materials should be avoided? Some materials made from animal proteins contain sulfur—wool, hair and feathers, for example—but others, such as silk, contain almost none (Mills and White 1994). Rubber contains sulfur, but many plastics do not, although plastics with sulfur are being developed and used more extensively, especially since the 1990s (Kultys 2007). Furthermore, elemental sulfur (which can also cause silver to tarnish) can turn up in unexpected places (Benson 2012): as an adhesive, in inlays in furniture, as a strengthening material in hollow jewellery or in cement.

This Note describes a test for the presence of sulfur in materials. The test involves heating a small sample of the material in a glass pipette with a piece of moistened lead-acetate test paper. It is a destructive test, but it requires only a small sample, about 10 mg . The test is particularly useful when choosing materials for exhibits and display cases. When possible, the sulfur-containing material should be avoided in display cases that contain silver or copper, but if the exhibit requires that the material and the metals be placed together, protective measures can be taken (Tétreault 2003).

In the test, a flame is used to heat the pipette until the material under test gives off fumes. Any hydrogen sulfide in the fumes will produce lead sulfide in the test paper and turn the paper black. This is a sensitive test for hydrogen sulfide, so only a small sample is needed to produce detectable levels of hydrogen sulfide, and there is only a small amount of lead in the test paper. (Nevertheless, it is recommended that the test be carried out in a well-ventilated area.) The procedure should be used first to test a sample known to contain sulfur and a sample known not to contain sulfur, to gain experience doing the test. Then actual samples can be tested.

Equipment and materials required to test for sulfur

  • Pasteur pipettes, disposable glass (one pipette per sample to be tested)
  • Parafilm M (plastic laboratory film) or another kind of plastic wrap
  • Wood applicator sticks
  • Source of heat (e.g. alcohol lamp, Bunsen burner or butane torch)

Lead acetate test paper

  • Tweezers (stainless steel or plastic)
  • Scalpel (for sampling hard materials)
  • Scissors (for sampling soft materials)
  • Distilled water (if available, otherwise tap water)
  • Eyedropper or extra Pasteur pipette
  • Hydrogen peroxide (3% v/v solution, preferably in a spray bottle)
  • Disposable gloves (e.g. nitrile)
  • Heat resistant gloves (e.g. leather)
  • Eye protection
  • Known to contain sulfur (e.g. wool, hair)
  • Known not to contain sulfur (e.g. plain white cotton, filter paper)
  • Unknown samples

Procedure for testing for sulfur

Wear disposable gloves when handling lead acetate paper or when using hydrogen peroxide; wear heat-resistant gloves when heating the pipette or the samples; and wear eye protection. Use caution when using any type of open flame, and follow the instructions for any flame source. Perform this test in a well-ventilated area or under a fume hood if possible. Treat used lead acetate papers as hazardous waste and dispose of them accordingly.

  • Seal the tapered tip of a Pasteur pipette by melting it in a flame. (A butane torch works well for this, but an alcohol lamp will also work.)
  • Cut off a sample of about 10 mg (i.e. 0.01 g) from the material to be tested using a scalpel or scissors.
  • With a wooden stick, push the sample to the tapered part of the pipette. Do not pack it tightly.
  • If using lead acetate test paper from a roll, cut a piece about 5 cm long. If the test paper is wider than the pipette, fold the piece of test paper in half lengthwise so it can be inserted into the pipette.
  • Add a drop or two of water to the folded test paper with another pipette or an eyedropper. The water should wick along the entire length of the paper. Do not add too much water.
  • Use tweezers to place the test paper inside the pipette, near the open end. The test paper should not touch the sample.
  • Cover the open end of the pipette with a piece of Parafilm M.
  • Gently heat the sample above a flame (not directly in it) until it fumes and the fumes reach the test paper. Since the fumes are denser than air, hold the tube horizontally, or tilt it slightly so the paper is lower than the sample (but do not tilt so much that the sample moves).
  • Leave the tube horizontal for several minutes to give the reaction time to proceed.
  • Remove the test paper from the pipette with tweezers.
  • Record whether or not there has been any colour change on the test paper.
  • Lightly spray or place a drop of hydrogen peroxide (3% v/v ) on the test paper.
  • Record any colour change.
  • The test is positive for sulfur if the paper turns dark brown or black after exposure to the fumes from the sample and then turns white after exposure to hydrogen peroxide.
  • The test should be done first on a sample known to contain sulfur and a sample known not to contain sulfur and then repeated with unknown samples.

Results of this procedure

A butane torch is a convenient source of heat to seal the tapered tip of a glass pipette (Figure 1).

A gloved hand holds one end of a pipette so that the tip at the other end is in the flame of a butane torch.

© Government of Canada, Canadian Conservation Institute. CCI 120260-0206 Figure 1. The tapered tip of a glass pipette is being sealed with a butane torch.

A sample pushed into the tapered part of a pipette is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2

© Government of Canada, Canadian Conservation Institute. CCI 120260-0209 Figure 2. A sample from a purple disposable nitrile glove has been pushed to the tapered part of a glass pipette with a wood applicator stick.

A wool sample is shown in Figure 3 at the narrow end of a pipette, with lead acetate test paper at the other end. The pipette has been sealed with Parafilm M. Figure 4 shows a more detailed view of the Parafilm M covering the end of the glass pipette.

Figure 3

© Government of Canada, Canadian Conservation Institute. CCI 120260-0210 Figure 3. An example of a prepared pipette containing a blue wool sample and a piece of damp lead acetate test paper; the open end is covered with Parafilm M.

Figure 4

© Government of Canada, Canadian Conservation Institute. CCI 120260-0211 Figure 4. A more detailed image of Parafilm M sealing the open end of a glass pipette with a piece of lead acetate test paper inside.

Figure 5 shows a pipette just after being inserted above the flame from an alcohol lamp. During heating, the sample may shrink, gradually change colour and sometimes appear to be boiling. At the stage of the test shown in Figure 6, the blue wool sample has changed colour and produced fumes that have turned the lead acetate test paper black. After the test, the inside of the pipette nearest the sample is coated with a dark brown residue from the degraded sample.

The appearance of a blue wool sample during heating for 5 minutes is shown in a video .

Figure 5

© Government of Canada, Canadian Conservation Institute. CCI 127994-0001 Figure 5. A pipette containing a blue wool sample just after being inserted above the flame from an alcohol lamp.

Figure 6

© Government of Canada, Canadian Conservation Institute. CCI 127994-0002 Figure 6. A pipette containing a blue wool sample after being heated enough with an alcohol lamp for a reaction to happen. The heat has caused the blue wool to darken and give off fumes, and the lead acetate test paper has turned black.

The dark brown and black discolouration on the lead acetate test paper in Figure 7 illustrates the strong reaction of the fumes from ebonite with the lead acetate test paper.

Figure 7

© Government of Canada, Canadian Conservation Institute. CCI 120260-0216 Figure 7. The dark brown and black discolouration formed on this piece of lead acetate test paper after it was exposed to the fumes from about 10 mg of ebonite.

The last step in the procedure is to remove the test paper from the pipette and add hydrogen peroxide (3% v/v ). The hydrogen peroxide is used to distinguish lead sulfide from carbon soot. Hydrogen peroxide will oxidize the dark lead sulfide to white lead sulfate, turning the darkened paper white (as shown in Figure 8), but will not change the colour of soot.

Figure 8

© Government of Canada, Canadian Conservation Institute. CCI 120260-0215 Figure 8. Three pieces of lead acetate test paper: left, new (dry, untested); middle, after reacting with reduced sulfur compounds and turning brown; and right, the middle test paper after applying 3% v/v hydrogen peroxide and converting the brown to white.

Additional information

Sample size.

Tétreault (2003) suggests a sample weight of 10 mg . This is a small amount of material: a chunk of rubber a few millimetres across, a piece of nitrile or latex glove about a centimetre across or a piece of wool yarn about 2 cm long. Tétreault (2003) also recommends drying liquid samples (white glue, for example) on a piece of aluminum foil for one day before testing.

Alcohol burner

The heat source shown in Figure 5 is an alcohol burner. The recommended fuel for this burner is some form of ethanol (ethyl alcohol), such as 95% ethanol or denatured ethanol. Denatured ethanol is ethanol that has been made poisonous or undrinkable through additives (such as methanol or a bittering agent). The alcohol burner is a convenient gentle heat source for heating the sample. It can also be used to seal the pipette, although a butane torch (Figure 1) is faster.

Parafilm M (as shown in Figure 9) is a stretchy laboratory film that is used for sealing containers such as the glass pipette.

A square box contains a double-size roll of film measuring 4 inches by 250 feet. The roll is fed through an opening at the top of the box.

© Government of Canada, Canadian Conservation Institute. CCI 120260-0212 Figure 9. A box of Parafilm M plastic laboratory film.

These test papers need to be stored below 30 °C in a dry place away from sunlight. If stored properly, they last several years. Nevertheless, it is important to check that the test paper still works by testing a known sample containing sulfur.

Materials containing sulfur

Sulfur-containing gases may originate from a wide range of materials. Some natural materials contain sulfur, such as:

  • Wool, wool felt

Elemental sulfur has been used, especially in the past, for various purposes, such as (Benson 2012):

  • Inlays in furniture

Some rubber-like objects are made by adding sulfur to polymers to modify their properties by forming bridges between individual chains. Some examples are:

  • Ebonite (formerly called vulcanite)
  • Elastic bands
  • Gloves (e.g. latex)
  • Molding material (polysulfide rubber)
  • Pencil erasers

Sulfur can also be found in a surprising number of other materials (Benson 2012), such as:

  • Clays (e.g. certain modelling clays)
  • Drywall (poor quality)
  • Glues (protein-based)
  • Paints (certain ones)
  • Plaster casts (made with gypsum)
  • Wood (recovered from anaerobic environments)

If a commercial product is being considered for use, first check its safety data sheet (SDS). Look for the section on hazardous combustion products and check if any contain sulfur (such as hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide or sulfuric acid). If present, then it is not necessary to carry out the lead acetate test because these combustion products indicate the commercial product must contain sulfur (Tétreault 2003).

Other tests for sulfur

Lead is used to make the test papers because of two important properties: it has a soluble salt (lead acetate), and lead sulfide is insoluble and dark. Other metals can be used instead of lead. One example is the Hydrogen Sulfide Test Paper made by Hach that contains copper sulfate. Another sulfide test paper, made by Macherey-Nagel , is said to be lead-free and not containing any hazardous materials. (The composition of the Macherey-Nagel sulfide test paper is unknown, but it worked as well as the lead acetate test paper in preliminary tests using the glass pipette.)

A different kind of test, based on a sodium azide solution, can also be used to test materials for sulfur (Daniels and Ward 1982). In this test, a drop of a solution containing sodium azide and iodine is placed on the material to be tested. Rapid evolution of nitrogen gas from the decomposition of the azide indicates the presence of sulfur.

The purpose of this test is to identify materials that contain sulfur, because these materials might emit gases that will tarnish silver, copper and alloys that contain these metals (such as sterling silver, brass and bronze). Tarnishing occurs when corrosion products form a thin film of discolouration on a metal's surface. One of the main causes of tarnishing is the reaction between the metal and sulfur-containing compounds such as hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S) and carbonyl sulfide (COS) (Selwyn 2004). Tarnish on silver is mainly composed of silver sulfide (Ag 2 S). Tarnish on copper is made up of copper sulfides (e.g. CuS, Cu 2 S) as well as copper oxide (e.g. cuprite, Cu 2 O).

More information on the lead acetate test can be found in Odegaard et al. (2005), Rémillard (2007) and Tétreault (2003).

These papers are coated with lead(II) acetate [Pb(CH 3 COO) 2 ], a white crystalline lead compound that is soluble in water. Lead test papers can be prepared by soaking paper in a solution of lead acetate, but it is more convenient to buy commercial test papers (as shown in Figure 10). During the test, a drop or two of water is added to the test paper to dissolve the lead acetate and produce lead ions (Pb 2+ ) in solution.

Small thin strips of lead acetate test paper are contained in a clear plastic container.

© Government of Canada, Canadian Conservation Institute. CCI 120260-0205 Figure 10. Lead acetate test papers in their container.

Lead acetate test paper is generally regarded as selective for detection of hydrogen sulfide (ASTM 2006). Hydrogen sulfide reacts with lead ions from the lead acetate to form solid lead sulfide PbS, a black solid.

H 2 S + Pb 2+ → PbS + 2H +

Hydrogen sulfide is released in the first few seconds after wool begins to burn (Spurgeon et al. 1977).

The selectivity for hydrogen sulfide is not perfect. Methyl mercaptan can turn the test paper a yellow colour, which fades after a few minutes (ASTM 2006). Carbonyl sulfide (COS) can react with the water in the test paper to form hydrogen sulfide, which in turn reacts with the test paper (Feigl et al. 1972).

Like other lead compounds, lead acetate and lead sulfide are toxic (Selwyn 2005), although there is so little lead acetate in these papers that some safety data sheets do not label the papers as hazardous. Lead acetate is also known as sugar of lead and was used historically to sweeten (and inadvertently poison) wine (Nriagu 1992). Lead sulfide is the mineral galena.

Reduced sulfur

Materials with sulfur that cause silver and copper to tarnish contain reduced sulfur (Selwyn 2004). Reduced sulfur is a term used to describe sulfur compounds in which the sulfur is in a reduced oxidation state, such as an oxidation state of zero [written as S(0) or S 0 ], minus one [written as S(-I) or S - ] or minus two [written as S(-II) or S 2- ]. An example with an oxidation state of zero is elemental sulfur (S). Examples with oxidation state minus one are keratin-containing materials (e.g. hair, wool). These contain disulfide (S-S) bonds in compounds of the form R-S-S-R, where R is a carbon-containing chain. Examples with oxidation state minus two are hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S), carbonyl sulfide (COS), organic thiols (RSH) and organic sulfides (R-S-R).

Natural rubber is obtained from the latex (sap) of the rubber tree. The latex can be hardened by vulcanization, a process where the latex is mixed with sulfur and heated (Nebergall et al. 1972), causing the sulfur to form bridges between latex molecules. Latex gloves, hockey pucks, Minibrix and ebonite are some examples of objects made from rubber. Neoprene is an example of a synthetic rubber that is sometimes vulcanized with sulfur.

Minibrix (as shown in Figure 11) are children's building blocks made from rubber between 1935 and 1976 (Hanson 2012). Ebonite is a type of hard rubber. It is a good electrical insulator and is often found in association with copper alloys in historic scientific instruments, telegraphy and radio collections. An example of ebonite in a telephone receiver is shown in Figure 12.

Two smaller pieces are each 25 mm long.

© Government of Canada, Canadian Conservation Institute. CCI 120260-0218 Figure 11. Three pieces from a set of Minibrix. The upper piece is 75 mm long.

Figure 12

© Government of Canada, Canadian Conservation Institute. CCI 120260-0217 Figure 12. The large earpiece at the left end of this telephone receiver is made of ebonite. Beside the receiver is a clear container holding small samples of the ebonite suitable for testing with the lead acetate test paper.

Ebonite deteriorates in the presence of air, moisture and light. The sulfur in the ebonite oxidizes to sulfuric acid, which can corrode metals or damage other adjacent material (Selwyn 2004).

Materials based on proteins

Wool, feathers, hair, skin and silk are all composed primarily of proteins, but whereas wool, feathers and hair contain a significant amount of sulfur in the protein keratin, skin contains less sulfur and silk contains almost none.

At room temperature, keratin does not release much sulfur (Tétreault 2003), but at 50 °C or under illumination it can. In an open room, sulfur from wool is probably insignificant compared to sulfur coming from other sources, so wool rugs are generally not a problem there. In a sealed display case, however, it is better to avoid wool where possible (Brimblecombe et al.1992).

Proteins are made from amino acids. Of the 20 amino acids commonly found in protein, two contain sulfur—cysteine and methionine (Mills and White 1994). In cysteine, the sulfur is present as a sulfhydryl group (SH) bonded to a carbon atom (sometimes written as -C-SH). Two cysteine molecules can join together through a sulfur-sulfur bond (a disulfide bond) to form cystine. It is these disulfide bonds that hold the molecular coils together in keratin, the main protein in wool, feathers and hair. (The sulfur-sulfur bonds are broken and then reformed when a perm is done on someone's hair.) There is much less sulfur in fibroin, the main protein in silk, or in collagen, the main protein in skin or muscle tissue; these proteins are held together through hydrogen bonds. (Collagen does contain some sulfur in methionine.)

In contrast to these protein-based materials, the plant-based materials cotton and linen are made of cellulose, which does not contain sulfur.

Hydrogen peroxide

It is possible that the dark brown discolouration on the test paper is carbon (i.e. soot) from the heated material. In addition, if the pipette is heated too much, the paper itself may char. Hydrogen peroxide is used to distinguish between black from lead sulfide and black from carbon soot or charred paper.

Hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) is an oxidizing agent. If the dark brown is lead sulfide, then the hydrogen peroxide (3% v/v ) will oxidize the lead sulfide to white lead sulfate (PbSO 4 , mineral name anglesite) (Vogel 1945).

PbS + 4H 2 O 2 → PbSO 4 + 4H 2 O

In this case, the brown stain will disappear and the paper will turn white, because the white lead sulfate is indistinguishable from the white of the paper. If the dark brown is soot, on the other hand, the colour will not change after the hydrogen peroxide is applied.

Hydrogen sulfide

Hydrogen sulfide, a colourless, heavier-than-air gas, has a foul smell and is extremely toxic. Fortunately the smell of hydrogen sulfide is detectable well below toxic concentrations; many people can recognize the smell at concentrations as low as 0.0047 parts per million (ppm) (Powers 2004). Levels of about 1 ppm can cause eye irritation; above 100 ppm, the gas deadens the sense of smell; and above about 200 ppm, hydrogen sulfide becomes deadly (Weil et al. 2007).

Special thanks to Avital Lang, CCI intern, for her help with developing this Note.

Note: The following information is provided only to assist the reader. Inclusion of a company in this list does not in any way imply endorsement by the Canadian Conservation Institute.

Lead acetate paper

Lead acetate paper is available from chemical supply companies such as Fisher Scientific, Macherey-Nagel distributed in Canada by Aldert Chemicals, Sigma-Aldrich and VWR International. Fisher test papers are supplied in a box of 24 vials; each vial contains 100 strips 4.8 cm long and 0.65 cm wide. Other brands usually come in a roll.

  • Fisher Scientific
  • Macherey-Nagel
  • Aldert Chemicals
  • Sigma-Aldrich
  • VWR International

Chemicals and laboratory equipment

Alcohol burners, disposable nitrile gloves, ethanol, wood applicator sticks, Parafilm M film and Pasteur pipettes are available from chemical supply companies such as Fisher Scientific and Canadawide Scientific. An alcohol burner is also available from Lee Valley. Ethanol is also available from hardware stores such as Home Hardware.

  • Canadawide Scientific
  • Home Hardware

Butane torch

Butane torches are available at hardware stores. The handheld micro torch used in this procedure is available from Lee Valley .

ASTM D2420-91. "Standard Test Method for Hydrogen Sulfide in Liquefied Petroleum (LP) Gases (Lead Acetate Method)." In Annual Book of ASTM Standards, vol. 05.01. West Conshohocken, PA: American Society for Testing and Materials, 2006, pp. 881–882.

Benson, P.L. "Some Unusual, Hidden, Surprising, or Forgotten Sources of (Possible) Sulfur Contamination in Museums and Historic Structures." AIC Objects Specialty Group Postprints 19 (2012), pp. 85–107.

Brimblecombe, P., D. Shooter and A. Kaur. "Wool and Reduced Sulphur Gases in Museum Air." Studies in Conservation 37,1 (1992), pp. 53–60.

Daniels, V., and S. Ward. "A Rapid Test for the Detection of Substances Which Will Tarnish Silver." Studies in Conservation 27,2 (1982), pp. 58–60.

Feigl, F., and V. Anger. Spot Tests in Inorganic Analysis, 6th ed. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 1972, p. 465.

Hanson, M. The History of Minibrix .

Kultys, A. "Sulfur-containing Polymers." In Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 5th ed., vol. 23. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2007, pp. 702–753.

Mills, J.S., and R. White. The Organic Chemistry of Museum Objects, 2nd ed. Oxford, UK: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1994.

Nebergall, W.H., F.C. Schmidt and H.F. Holtzclaw. General Chemistry, 4th ed.  Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath, 1974, pp. 581–582.

Nriagu, J.O. "Saturnine Drugs and Medicinal Exposure to Lead: An Historical Outline." In H.L. Needleman, ed., Human Lead Exposure. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1992, pp. 3–21.

Odegaard, N., S. Carroll and W.S. Zimmt. "Test for Sulfur Using Lead Acetate Paper and Pyrolysis." In Material Characterization Tests for Objects of Art and Archaeology, 2nd ed. London, UK: Archetype Publications, 2005, pp. 146–147.

Powers, W. The Science of Smell Part 1: Odor Perception and Physiological Response . Ames, USA: Iowa State University, 2004.

Rémillard, F. "Lead Acetate Test." In Identification of Plastics and Elastomers: Miniaturized Tests ( PDF version). Québec, QC: Centre de conservation du Québec, 2007, pp. 12–13.

Selwyn, L. Metals and Corrosion: A Handbook for the Conservation Professional. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Conservation Institute, 2004.

Selwyn, L. "Health and Safety Concerns Relating to Lead and Lead Compounds in Conservation." Journal of the Canadian Association for Conservation 30 (2005), pp. 18–37.

Spurgeon, J.C., L.C. Speitel and R.E. Feher. " Thermal Decomposition Products of Aircraft Interior Materials ." Report No. FAA-RD-77-20. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, 1977.

Tétreault, J. Airborne Pollutants in Museums, Galleries, and Archives: Risk Assessment, Control Strategies, and Preservation Management. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Conservation Institute, 2003.

Vogel, A.I. A Text-book of Qualitative Chemical Analysis Including Semimicro Qualitative Analysis, 3rd ed. London, UK: Longmans, Green and Co. Ltd., 1945, p. 323.

Weil, E.D., S.R. Sandler and M. Gernon. "Sulfur Compounds." In Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 5th ed., vol. 23. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2007, pp. 621–701.

Written by Lyndsie Selwyn

Également publié en version française .

© Government of Canada, Canadian Conservation Institute, 2017

ISSN 1928-1455

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Detection Techniques for Lead Ions in Water: A Review

1 National-Local Joint Engineering Laboratory of Intelligent Food Technology and Equipment, Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Agro-Food Processing, Integrated Research Base of Southern Fruit and Vegetable Preservation Technology, Zhejiang International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Health Food Manufacturing and Quality Control, Fuli Institute of Food Science, College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China

2 Zhejiang Lohand Environmental Technology Co., Ltd., Hangzhou 310018, China

Xingqian Ye

Associated data.

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Lead pollution has increasingly become the focus of environmental pollution, which is a great harm to the ecological environment and human health. Strict control of the emission of lead pollutants and accurate monitoring of lead are very important. The lead ion detection technologies are introduced here, including spectrophotometry, electrochemical method, atomic absorption spectrometry, and other detection methods, and the methods’ applicability, the advantages, and disadvantages are discussed. The detection limits of voltammetry and atomic absorption spectrometry are as low as 0.1 μg/L, and those of atomic absorption spectrometry are as low as 2 μg/L. The detection limit of photometry is higher (0.01 mg/L), but this method can be achieved in most laboratories. The application of different extraction pretreatment technologies in lead ion detection is introduced. The new technologies develop at home and abroad, such as precious metal nanogold technology, paper microfluidic technology, fluorescence molecular probe technology, spectroscopy, and other emerging technologies in recent years, are reviewed, and the principle and application of various technologies are expounded.

1. The Hazard of Lead Ion Pollution

Lead is the most abundant heavy metal in the earth’s crust, which has stable chemical properties, excellent ductility, and easy to form alloys with other metals. Lead can absorb X, γ, and other rays, so it is widely used in industry. The universality of lead use also leads to the universality of lead pollution in our environment. It is a toxic heavy metal, and there has been a lot of research on environmental safety. It is a pure toxic, neurotoxic, heavy metal that has no metabolic benefits and is easily absorbed by the human body, especially through the ingestion of contaminated food or water. There has been sufficient evidence to prove that the toxic effect of excessive intake of lead on humans, especially children, is enormous [ 1 ]. Even a small amount of lead that enters the environment should be controlled. However, the discharge of three wastes from lead industry, the use of common daily products, such as lead-containing ceramics/ink/cosmetics, automobile exhaust emissions, and the consumption of lead-contaminated food, have all led to the potential safety hazards of unconscious lead intake in our daily life, which threatens people’s health. Lead pollution is widespread in our daily life [ 2 , 3 , 4 ]. Wang et al. [ 5 ] found in a comparative survey on food intake and lead exposure of Chinese residents that people are most exposed to lead in beverages, followed by dried beans and dark vegetables. Even if the percentage of lead intake is small, it means that lead accumulates in the body all the time through the food people eat every day. With the improvement of people’s requirements for the quality of life, the detection and analysis of lead has been paid more attention.

Lead is usually absorbed by human body or animals and plants in the form of lead ions, then it reacts with biological macromolecular affinity sites in biological systems, affecting different organs of organisms with acute or chronic toxic effects. The heavy metal lead cannot be degraded by organisms and is extremely difficult to discharge, so it accumulates in living organisms. Simultaneous exposure to two or more heavy metals can also have a cumulative effect. Lead is a neurotoxic substance, which is mainly absorbed through the respiratory tract, digestive tract, and skin, and it is rapidly distributed to organs and tissues of the whole body after entering the blood. Therefore, lead is a toxic heavy metal that can lead to systemic diseases of the human body, such as central nervous system damage, lung dysfunction, anemia, cardiovascular dysfunction, etc., and even has certain carcinogenicity [ 6 , 7 ]. Most of the lead in the human body is mainly stored in the bone in the form of trilead phosphate, and a small amount is stored in the liver, spleen, brain, and other organs and cells, and maintains a dynamic exchange process with blood at any time. Therefore, blood lead concentration is usually used in medicine to reflect the health hazards of lead in the human body. The blood lead content of the human body is between 0 and 99 μg/L. The median blood lead of male and female in eastern China is 44.00 (29.00–62.16 μg/L) and 37.79 (25.13–54.35 μg/L), respectively [ 8 ]. The international level of concern for human lead poisoning is 100 μg/L. When the contamination of lead in soil reaches a certain degree, it will have a large impact on the growth and quality of plants. High concentrations of lead will inhibit the germination of plant seeds and the growth of seedlings, reduce the content of chlorophyll in plant leaves, resulting in the decline of plant photosynthesis, and affect plant growth and fruit yield [ 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ].

In view of the harmfulness and destructiveness of heavy metal lead ions to the environment, it is of great practical value and scientific significance to use effective technology to remove heavy metal lead from the environment. At present, many methods have been used to remove heavy metal ions in sewage, such as precipitation method, adsorption, electrochemical methods, etc. [ 13 , 14 , 15 ] Among them, the adsorption method is the most commonly used method and is considered to be one of the most promising methods because of its advantages of simple design, low cost, high efficiency, and easy operation [ 16 , 17 , 18 ]. Since lead is ubiquitous in our living environment, it is essential to detect lead ions in order to effectively avoid or reduce lead intake. How to quickly and accurately detect the content of lead ion in aqueous solution is a topic actively explored by relevant industry personnel, which is of great significance for people to avoid significant economic losses in agricultural planting and maintain personal health.

2. The Traditional Analysis Method for Lead Ion

The traditional analysis methods include the atomic absorption method, inductively coupled plasma emission spectrometry, mass spectrometry, stripping voltammetry, etc. Usually, the methods selected according to different samples, different lead concentration, and different detection limits of analysis methods. Take the lead ion detection method in China’s national standard for drinking water as an example, there are seven analysis methods [ 19 ]. The atomic absorption method has the advantages of low detection limit, high accuracy, good selectivity, less sample consumption, and a wide range of applications. It is suitable for the analysis of trace components in samples. Compared with non-flame atomic absorption method, direct inhalation flame atomic absorption spectrophotometry has higher precision, faster determination speed, and less interference, and it is suitable for the determination of lead concentration in various wastewater [ 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 ]. The extraction/ion exchange flame atomic absorption method is suitable for clean and surface water [ 20 , 21 , 25 ]. Although graphite furnace atomic absorption method is highly sensitive, it is highly interfered with by a matrix and is suitable for the determination of lead concentration in clean water [ 22 ]. The oscorography polarography also has high sensitivity and wide detection range, its detection limit is about 0.02 mg/L [ 19 ]. Under normal circumstances, the pollution concentration of lead in water is not high, so the electrochemical method, atomic absorption method, and inductively coupled plasma emission spectrometry/mass spectrometry are common. Atomic fluorescence analysis is fast, and its cost is lower than that of inductively coupled plasma emission spectrometry/mass spectrometry, but nitrogen has a harsh requirement on the acidity of the system. For samples with high lead concentration, dithizone colorimetric method can also be used, its detection limit of lead concentration is 0.01 mg/L [ 19 ]. Comparison of traditional detection methods for lead ions is shown in Table 1 .

Comparison of traditional detection methods for lead ions.

MethodsLimit of DetectionAdvantagesDisadvantages
spectrometryAtomic absorption spectrophotometry/
atomic fluorescence spectrometry/
inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry
≤2.5 μg/L [ ]
5 μg/L [ ]
0.2 mg/L (direct determination) and 2 μg/L (after chelation and extraction) [ ]
Low detection limit, high accuracy, good selectivity, less sample consumption, and a wide range of applications.The testing equipment is expensive, and it is highly interfered by matrix
colorimetric methodDithizone method0.01 mg/L [ ]General laboratory can realize the determination of lead, and the detection cost is lowThe detection procedure is more complicated, KCN masking agent is highly toxic, and the presence of a large amount of tin interferes with the determination. The amount of waste liquid produced is large
electrochemical methodOscorography polarography/
voltammetry
0.01 mg/L [ ]
0.1 μg/L [ ]
The operation is simple and the equipment price is relatively cheap, less waste liquid is produced.Water samples containing Sn and As require additional acid or pretreatment

3. New Lead Ion Detection Techniques

The development of lead ion detection methods introduced in the national standard has been relatively mature, and each method has its own advantages and disadvantages. Atomic absorption methods and electrochemical methods can satisfy the detection of lead ion in most cases. However, for laboratories that do not have such expensive instruments, the dithizone colorimeter is a test method that is easier to achieve in ordinary laboratories. The colorimetric method is the only colorimetric spectrophotometry introduced in the national standard method and its operation is complicated. The toxic and easily manufactured properties of trichloromethane also do not apply to some sites that require rapid testing. Therefore, in addition to the test method recommended by the national standard, a variety of more environmentally friendly, more simple, more accurate emerging detection technologies are also developing in the direction of diversification.

3.1. Application of Different Extraction Techniques

Due to the low content of lead in actual samples and certain matrix interference effect in the analysis process, certain pretreatment and lead enrichment processes are usually required. For example, in the national standard GB/T 5750-2006, the reaction products of dithizone-lead in water samples were extracted by chloroform solution in colorimetric method [ 19 ]. This method belongs to liquid-liquid extraction technology, it has good selective extraction and enrichment effect on lead. In the national standard DZ/T 0064.20-2021, the lead ions in the water samples were enriched by chelating resin and then determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry [ 21 ], it belongs to solid phase extraction technology. Traditional liquid–liquid extraction technology usually needs to use a large dose of organic reagents, which has a large pollution to the environment and a limited enrichment ratio. Based on this, researchers explored other green, economical and safe extraction methods for trace lead detection

Decentralized liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME) is a new extraction method developed in recent years. It is different from the traditional liquid-liquid extraction method in the national standard method, it has the advantages of less extraction agent consumption, fast extraction time, and high enrichment efficiency. DDLME technique can be used in combination with atomic absorption method, spectrophotometry, and other analytical techniques to determine trace lead in samples. Zhang et al. [ 26 ] used light solvent octanol as extraction agent, methanol as dispersing agent, and diethyl dithiocarbamate (DDTC) as chelating agent to establish a dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction-graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (LDS-DLLMEGFAAS) method. The method has a concentration of 87 times lead and a detection limit of 0.15 μg/L. It has been successfully applied to the detection of trace Pb in tap water, drinking water, and South Lake water. He et al. [ 27 ] used 8-hydroxyquinoline (8-HQ) as the coordination agent, carbon tetrachloride as the extraction agent and acetone as the dispersible agent to determine trace lead in tea with spectrophotometry, and the detection limit reached 0.045 μg/L. Tang et al. [ 28 ] used 2-[(5-bromo-2-pyrene-)]azo-5-diethylaminophenol as the chelating agent, carbon tetrachloride as the extractant, ethanol as the dispersant. The enrichment ratio was up to 94 times, and the detection limit of the method was 0.1 mg/L. DLLME technology usually requires the use of both extractant and dispersant. However, Franca et al. [ 29 ] for the first time used non-toxic and biodegradable dimethyl carbonate (DMC) as both extractant and dispersive agent for lead determination, and used dithiophosphate as complexing agent, combined with UV spectrophotometry. The enrichment factor of this method was 8.8, and the detection limit was 0.2 mg/L.

Cloud point extraction(CPE) technology is a new environmentally friendly extraction technology that does not use organic solvents. It is an extraction method based on the solubility and turbidity of aqueous solution of surfactant micelles. This method achieves the purpose of separating the target analytes and sample by controlling the change of reaction conditions, such as pH and temperature. Mao et al. [ 30 ] established a method of crown ether double turbidity point extraction (DCH18C6-DCPE) to determine trace lead in environmental water samples and food. Lead was selectively extracted by DCH18C6 to form a hydrophobic complex into L64 enrichment phase, then the L64 enrichment phase obtained by turbidity point extraction was complexed with EDTA solution and extracted into the aqueous phase. The enrichment multiple of this process was 18, the extraction time was 10 min, and the method detection limit was 2.8 μg/L.

Solid phase extraction (SPE) technology has the advantages of simple operation, low organic reagent consumption and low price, and is also widely used in the field of environmental and biological sample analysis. Zhao et al. [ 31 ] prepared a novel amine-functionalized polyacrylonitrile and a self-made solid phase extraction column to enrich lead ions in water and successfully determined the lead content in environmental water by combined with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry technology. Under the optimized conditions, 95% adsorption rate can be achieved in only 10 min with high selectivity and a detection limit of 2.5 μg/L. Liang et al. [ 32 ] synthesized lead ion-imprinted polymer microspheres by ion-imprinted polymerization technology. Additionally, it filled the polymer microspheres into solid phase extraction columns to enrich lead ions in the samples. The extraction column has a maximum enrichment ratio of 250 times and can be reused for more than 12 times. Combined with microwave plasma emission spectrometry, the detection limit of this method is 0.26 μg/L under optimal extraction conditions. Khoshhesab et al. [ 33 ] synthesized a magnetic nano-adsorbent nickel ferrite with high adsorption performance for lead ions in water. The extractant can be quickly separated under the external magnet, then eluted with hydrochloric acid solution, and determined by spectrophotometry. The extractant can be reused at least three times. Wang et al. [ 34 ] synthesized manganese tetroxide nanoparticles for solid phase extraction of lead, and combined with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry to determine lead content in vegetables, the detection limit of which was 4 ng/L. The extraction column has good stability in a weakly acidic environment and can be reused 60 times. Solid phase extraction technology is mostly in conjunction with on-line technology. In addition to its good selective adsorption performance for lead ions, the reuse performance of extraction column is also one of the important factors to evaluate the applicability of the method. Therefore, it is necessary to increase the reuse times of extraction columns in the development of new extraction columns.

Ionic liquid, as a new functional material, is also widely used in the field of extraction, which has the advantages of non-volatilization, high stability, and design of results. Fan [ 35 ] prepared three ionic liquids with different cationic side chain lengths [CnMIM] ( n = 4, 6, and 8), used them as extractants, and used dithizone as chelating agent. The extraction rate of lead ions was higher than 93.5% under optimized conditions, and the ionic liquids can be back extracted by controlling the pH value.

3.2. Precious Metal Nanotechnology Applications

Due to the unique optical properties, silver/gold/copper and other noble metal nanoparticles have been widely used as chemical probes or sensor probes for the analysis of various components in environmental and food samples in recent years [ 36 , 37 , 38 ]. From this, Shrivas et al. [ 39 ] reported a paper-based lead ion analysis device. The device is modified with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) coated silver nanoparticles (AgNPs). The red shift of the local surface plasmon resonant absorption band occurs when the lead ion touches AgNPs/PVA (as shown in Figure 1 ). The color intensity of PADs is recorded with a smart phone, then processed with ImageJ software. A new colorimetric method is finally established. The calibration curve has a good linear relationship in the range of 20–1000 μg/L, and the limit of detection (LOD) is 8 μg/L.

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Imaging color on PADs at different lead ion concentrations ( a – f ) and the calibration curve between different concentrations of lead from 50 to 1000 μg L −1 against the respective mean color intensity [ 39 ].

Krian [ 40 ] prepared an alumina material coated with 2-Mercaptosuccinic acid (MSA)-capped gold nanoparticles and used the material as a solid extraction agent for lead. The limit of detection was 0.22 μg/L under the optimal conditions. Although the material has a good enrichment and adsorption effect on lead, its specific selective performance for lead is not optimistic, and it is greatly interfered by Zn 2+ , Cl − , and SO 4 2− . So, the accuracy of the material used for testing lead in actual water samples remains to be studied. Zhong et al. [ 41 ] used glutathione (GSH) and gold nanoparticles (AuNP) for the rapid determination of lead. GSH, as a binding agent between lead ion and AuNP, enabled AuNP to selectively bind with lead ion. AuNP rapidly aggregated under the combined action of lead ion and GSH and a rapid color change can be observed. The AuNP solution changed from ruby red to blue within 10 min and the rate of color change was different with different concentrations of lead (as shown in Figure 2 ). The absorbance ratio between the two colors (A610/A520) has a linear relationship within a certain range of lead concentration, achieving a linear calibration curve of up to 500 ppb and a detection limit of 6 ppb. However, the interaction between the thiol (-SH) groups and the lead cation is usually nonspecific and susceptible to interference by other heavy metals. Due to the well reaction and strong specific selectivity between lead ion and phenolic hydroxyl/carboxyl groups, Berlina [ 42 ] et al. synthesized colloidal gold nanoparticles using sodium citrate and sodium tannate as reductants and stabilizers. The corresponding concentration relationship was established by comparing the absorbance changes before and after the interaction between colloidal gold and lead ions at 595 nm. No specific reagent was added to coupling the nanoparticles to the target reactants in this study, and the quantitative limit of the method was 60 ng/mL.

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The color of the solution varied with different reaction times [ 41 ].

3.3. Paper-Based Microfluidic Technology

Although traditional laboratory methods and instruments can achieve accurate quantitative analysis of trace lead in water samples, they often have the disadvantages of complicated operation process, large amount of reagents, expensive analytical instruments, and higher requirements for professional and technical personnel. Paper-based microfluidic technology takes paper as the substrate of microfluidic devices. Various 2D and 3D microfluidic channels can be established through the pore structure and pore size distribution of the paper itself, so that the fluid can be controlled to flow in the pre-designed channel to achieve the effect of detection and analysis. As a low-cost point-of-care diagnostic device, it has the advantages of being easy to carry and a fast analysis speed, which is of great significance for online testing and is widely used in chemistry, biology, medicine, and other fields [ 43 , 44 , 45 ]. Smartphones also provide an attractive platform for analytical devices for different areas, such as rapid diagnostics and environmental monitoring. Since the smartphone camera is a good color imaging sensor, most of the analysis methods on smartphones are based on colorimetry and macroscopic feature imaging. Additionally, the use of the smartphone camera can be further extended by adding add-on accessories.

Nguyen et al. [ 46 ] established a nano-colorimetric method using smart phones for quantitative detection of soluble lead ions in drinking water based on the principle of quantitative reaction between chromate ions and lead ions to produce bright yellow precipitates. The laboratory has designed a smartphone microscope that can operate in both fluorescence and dark-field imaging modes and enables color detection and intensity quantification at the nanometer level with the smartphone microscope. The sum of the intensities of the yellow pixels showed a good linear relationship with the Pb 2+ concentration in deionized water (1.37–175 ppb) and in urban tap water (5–175 ppb) ( Figure 3 a). The same smartphone without the improvement could only detect Pb 2+ at a concentration of more than 35,000 ppb, and these images were highly blurred compared with microscopic images ( Figure 3 b).

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( a ) PbCrO 4 sediment imaged by dark-field smartphone microscope with Pb 2+ concentration ranging from 1.375–350 ppb. The brightness and contrast of the PbCrO 4 sediment images at Pb 2+ concentration of 1.375–2.75 ppb was adjusted for display purpose; ( b ) PbCrO 4 sediment taken by the same smartphone without the objective lens. The yellow color of PbCrO 4 can only be detected at a concentration above 35,000 ppb. The images are highly blurred compared to the microscopy images [ 46 ].

Satarpai et al. [ 47 ] prepared a paper-based lead ion enrichment and concentration material using filter paper as the substrate and zirconium silicate as the adsorption material. It was prepared by transferring a solution of zirconium silicate onto filter paper, then drying it. The modified filter paper was cut into suitable small discs and placed in a simple enrichment device (a micro-centrifuge tube equipped with a peristaltic pump) to enrich lead ions in water. Then, the filter paper, after the lead ion enrichment was dried, was placed in a special detection area device and sodium rodiate was added to react with lead ion to produce a pink substance. The higher the concentration of Pb(II), the stronger the color. The lead ion concentration was determined by taking pictures with a smart phone and processing images with ImageJ image processing software. The detection limit of the method was 10 μg/L, which could realize the detection of 10–100 μg/L lead ion in environmental water.

Sahu et al. [ 48 ] prepared a paper colorimeter device based on glucose-functionalized gold nanoparticles (AuNPs/Glu) for simultaneous determination of As(III) and Pb(II). The non-covalent interaction between As(III) and Pb(II) and glucose molecules leads to the aggregation of metal nanoparticles, which causes the color change and red shift of the localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) absorption band of AuNPs/Glu in the 200–800 nm region. The red shift (Dl) of the LSPR band of As(III) is 525–660 nm and that of Pb(II) is 525–670 nm. A smart phone and ImageJ image processing software were used to process and determine the concentration of those two ions. The color changes after the reaction of different concentrations of ions and the linear relationship are shown in Figure 4 .

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( a ) Circular filter paper strip fabricated with AuNPs/Glu along with the deposition of different concentrations of As(III) with their calibration curve; ( b ) circular filter strip fabricated with AuNPs/Glu along with the deposition of different concentrations of Pb(II) with their calibration curve [ 48 ].

3.4. Spectrometry

The traditional plasma emission spectrometry and atomic absorption spectrometry for the determination of sample lead content require some pre-treatment processes, such as sample digestion and regular calibration of the working curve, which leads to a large amount of time to test a sample. Su et al. [ 49 ] used energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry to determine lead in polymer materials. The test process did not need to destroy the sample, but only needed to crush the large polymeric sample to a particle diameter of less than 4 mm, which greatly saved the sample pre-treatment time and reduced the detection cost. The detection limit of the method was 4.1 μg/g, and the accuracy was good. He et al. [ 50 ] combined a self-designed new type of hydride generator with inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometer and added a self-made pre-stabilizer to the reducing agent to solve the problem of instability of the traditional hydride measurement system and improve the sensitivity of the method. The detection limit of the method can reach 1.0 μg/L, and there is no matrix effect interference. Lehmann et al. [ 51 ] studied CO 2 laser induced spectroscopy for the detection of lead in the classification of industrial recycled glass. Compared with the most advanced X-ray fluorescence technology, the detection limit, detection speed, and detection accuracy of CO 2 laser-induced spectroscopy are comparable, and the hardware of CO 2 laser-induced spectroscopy has a lower price and is expected to replace X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy to realize the detection of lead in glass. Tian et al. [ 52 ] used Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy based on principal component analysis (PCA) and partial least squares (PLS-DA) to study the biochemical changes in plasma during acute lead poisoning (ALP) in rats. The researchers first collected a large number of plasma samples from rats with and without ALP and found that the corresponding biochemical changes between plasma and lead can be used as potential spectral biomarkers for the diagnosis of lead poisoning. This is the first application of FTIR spectroscopy based on stoichiometry. Arif et al. [ 53 ] used a FieldSpec-3 portable handheld ground object spectrometer to measure cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) content from 23 roads in the municipality of Chongqing, China. For the Pb content inversion models, the PLS model processed by SG-MSC had the best prediction accuracy. The results of this study are of great value for the portable detection of lead in green space by hyperspectral imaging.

3.5. Fluorescent Molecular Probe

Fluorescent molecules can emit a certain wavelength of fluorescence when they are irradiated by ultraviolet or visible light. Its fluorescence properties change with the change of the environment, so as to realize the effective detection of the tested substance. Fluorescence sensor technology has the advantages of good sensitivity, high selectivity, and short response time. In recent years, fluorescence sensors related to heavy metal detection have also been widely concerned by researchers.

Chen et al. [ 54 ] reported a dual-function biosensor with electrochemical and fluorescent detection that can be used for blood lead detection. In this system, the presence of magnetic ferric oxide allows the sensor to be quickly fixed on the magnetic electrode. The surface of Fe 3 O 4 is modified with hyperbranched polyamide (HPAM) with good fluorescence characteristics, rich amino groups, and cavity structure, which can form coordination bonds with lead ions to rapidly accumulate blood lead ( Figure 5 A). The enriched lead ions precipitate on the electrode surface and generate a current, while limiting the geometric movement of the fluorescence center of HPAM to enhance the fluorescence intensity. Based on this, the system realizes electrochemical and fluorescence dual-function detection of blood lead. The electrochemical detection range was 1.5–4.8 × 10 3 pM and the detection limit was 4.4 pM Figure 5 B. The fluorescence detection range was 0.5–4.8 × 10 3 pM and the detection limit was 1.0 pM ( Figure 5 C).

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( A ) Schematic illustration of the synthesis of MHPAM-H NPs and their applications in ( B ) the electrochemical detection and ( C ) the fluorescence detection for blood lead [ 54 ].

Song et al. [ 55 ] synthesized a fluorescent fiber nanocrystal sensor for lead ion detection in aqueous solution, which is composed of fluorescent 1, 8-naphthimide dye covalently combined with cellulose nanocrystal (CNCs). The dye group grafted on the sensor and the adjacent carboxyl group on the surface of CNCs synergistically interact with lead ions in aqueous solution to show selectivity, resulting in a significant enhancement of fluorescence emission intensity. The binding ratio of lead ions to fluorophores on CNCs is 1.2:1 and the detection limit can be as low as 1.5 × 10 −7 mol/L. Qi et al. [ 56 ] designed a fluorescence sensor of H 2 Pc-β-(ZnPor) 2 , a phthalocyanine porphyrin heterotriplet, for the determination of lead ions. This triplet has an efficient intramolecular fluorescence resonance energy transfer process (FRET) from two zinc porphyrin (ZnPor) units to a metal-free phthalocyanine (H 2 Pc) unit. Selective binding of lead ions to H 2 Pc effectively quench the fluorescence emission of the phthalocyanine unit (700 nm) while inhibiting the intramolecular FRET process and enhancing the fluorescence emission of the ZnPor unit (605 and 652 nm). A significant ratio fluorescence response was thus produced ( Figure 6 ).

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Lead ion detection mechanism [ 56 ].

3.6. Electrode

Electrochemical analysis has the advantages of good sensitivity, large linear dynamic range, fast analysis time, and low cost. To realize the selectivity test of electrochemical method for lead ion in aqueous solution, a lead selective adsorption film is usually prepared to modify the electrode, then lead determination is carried out under certain conditions. Electrochemical analysis has the advantages of good sensitivity, large linear dynamic range, fast analysis time, and low cost. Under certain detection conditions, the electrochemical method usually realizes the selectivity test of lead ions in aqueous solution by preparing a lead-selective adsorption film to modify the electrode. As the electrode head is vulnerable to the interference of organic compounds, such as passivation and signal weakening, it is extremely important to pay attention to the reuse performance, precision, and anti-interference ability of the electrode while synthesizing high-sensitivity electrode modified films. Nguyen et al. [ 57 ] prepared a platinum nanoflower modified electrode by one-step electrochemical deposition method for simultaneous determination of lead ions and cadmium ions in water. Lead and cadmium ions in the range of 1–100 μg/L can be tested normally. The detection limits of the electrode for lead and cadmium were 0.408 and 0.453 μg/L, respectively. Guo et al. [ 58 ] established a method for determination of lead ions by square wave voltammetry using isoleucine modified glassy carbon electrode working electrode. Under the optimized conditions, the peak current Ip had a good linear relationship with lead ion concentration in the range of 5–50 nmol/L and 0.05–5.0 mmol/L, and the detection limit could be as low as 3.41 nmol/L. Although the newly fabricated electrode has high sensitivity, its reuse performance and anti-interference performance are not further described. In anodic stripping voltammetry, the lead detection signal is easily weakened or eliminated by surfactants and humic acid in environmental water. Grabarczyk et al. [ 59 ] found that adding a certain amount of Amberlite XAD-7 resin to the solution could eliminate the interference of some organic substances, such as surfactants without adsorbing lead ions, so that the electrode could directly detect lead ions in wastewater containing surfactants. A sensitive, rapid, and economical method for determination of lead in environmental water was developed. Silva et al. [ 60 ] used paraffin oil as the binder, cork, and graphite to synthesize a green, low-cost graphite/cork electrode material. Experiments show that the material has the best sensitivity to lead ions when the content of cork is 70% and the content of graphite is 30%. The sensitivity is better in 0.5 M sulfuric acid medium, and the detection limit of the method is 0.3 μM. Although the material is green and easy to synthesize, its sensitivity is relatively low compared with other methods, and acetate ion has a great influence on the determination of lead. Therefore, it can be further optimized. Deswati et al. [ 61 ] established an adsorbent cathodic stripping voltammetry (AdCSV) for the determination of lead and cadmium in seawater. In this method, calcium reagent was used as heavy metal complexing agent to adsorb lead ions and cadmium ions in seawater, then reduced on the surface of the hanging mercury drop electrode. Under the optimal testing conditions, the linear ranges of Pb and Cd were 10–160 ng/mL and 10–190 ng/mL, respectively, and the detection limits were 0.02 ng/mL and 0.05 ng/mL, respectively. The Pb and Cd showed good anti-interference performance against common ions in environmental water, but their re-use performance was unknown.

4. Comparison of Different New Detection Techniques

As the traditional dithizone color method consumes a large test dose, large waste liquid displacement, the masking agent used is highly toxic, and has a complicated operation, people continue to verify, improve, and supplement the methods of lead detection, so there is relatively mature atomic absorption spectrometry, atomic fluorescence spectrometry, electrochemistry, and other methods. Although the traditional method can achieve more accurate determination of lead in different fields, the greener, more efficient, and more portable method is still the main research focus. Among the new methods described in the review, The method based on precious metal nanotechnology has high sensitivity and can realize the detection of trace lead in environmental water samples. Paper-based microfluidic technology provides great convenience for on-site real-time detection, and its advantages of low cost, high sensitivity, non-professionals can use it, and quickly obtain test results make it have a huge development space and potential in the field of analysis and detection. The spectroscopic method is still the most commonly used method in the field of lead detection. It is the first choice in the field of lead detection because of its small amount of test samples, green and stable test links, and high detection accuracy. The electrochemical method also has good sensitivity, large detection linear range, low production cost, and high accuracy, which has become a research hotspot in the field of pre-detection. The summary of lead new measurement method is shown in Table 2 .

Summary of lead new measurement method.

MethodsConcentration RangeApplicable ObjectsAdvantagesDisadvantages
Precious metal nanotechnologyAgNPs/PVA [ ]
MSA-capped GNP-supported alumina [ ]
20–10,000 μg/L [ ]
0–50 μg/L [ ]
Surface water and industrial waste water [ , ]High sensitivityIt is difficult to synthesize and has a poor shelf life
Paper-based microfluidic technologyChromate method [ ]
Sodium rhodizonate method [ ]
AuNPs/Glu method [ ]
1.37–175 μg/L [ ]
10–100 μg/L [ ]
0–1000 μg/L [ ]
Environmental water and industrial waste water [ , , ]It has low cost, real-time monitoring on site, and can be used by non-specialistsThe sensitivity was low, and the paper chip structure design did not meet the market demand
SpectrometryCO laser induced spectroscopy [ ]
Chemometrics-Based Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy [ ]
>6 wt.-% [ ]Glass [ ]
Blood lead [ ]
High precision, wide application fieldDue to the large interference, it is difficult to meet the accurate measurement of different water quality. High cost
Fluorescent molecular probeA dual-responsive biosensor [ ]
Fluorescent cellulose nanocrystals [ ]
0.5–4.8 × 10 pM [ ]
2.5 × 10 –5.0 × 10 mol/L [ ]
Blood lead [ ]
chemical, environmental, and
biological systems [ ].
Good sensitivity, high selectivity, and short response timeThe synthesis is complex and the photostability is unknown
ElectrodeAnodic Stripping Voltammetry [ ]
Graphite/Cork sensor [ ]
Adsorptive cathodic stripping voltammetry [ ]
2 × 10 –5.0 × 10 mol/L [ ]
1–25 μmol/L [ ]
10–160 ng/mL [ ]
Waste water [ ]
Natural water [ ]
Seawater [ ]
Good sensitivity, large linear dynamic range, fast analysis time, and low costThe electrode membrane is easily inactivated by interfering substances, and the shelf life needs to be improved

The high sensitivity sensor based on noble metal nanoclusters relies on effective methods to synthesize excellent noble metal nanoclusters probes. The combination between ultra-small size (<2 nm) precious metals and lead ions is more sensitive. Therefore, the synthesis of stable and highly sensitive noble metal nanoclusters is a major difficulty in the field of precious metal nanotechnology in the detection of heavy metals. The design of paper chip structure is related to the detection efficiency, sensitivity, and specific selection performance. Therefore, how to optimize paper wetting conditions and liquid conveying speed to improve sample conveying capacity is the main research direction of this technology, and most of the studies in the review still have a long way to go from market application. Good photostability and high quantum yield have always been the focus of the research of fluorescent molecular probes. The reported synthesis of probe molecules is relatively complex. The design of a Pb 2+ fluorescent probe with simple structure, low cost, good selectivity and high sensitivity has important research value and practical significance. The development of X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and so on are also developing towards the direction of low cost and high precision and are gradually applied in various fields of lead monitoring, but there are few applications in water quality monitoring. The change of environmental conditions, such as temperature and pH, will cause great interference to the spectral absorption and the electronic circuit of the instrument, which makes it difficult to meet the accurate measurement of different water quality. Electrochemical method of sensitization of nanomaterials, more green synthetic raw materials, and other detection of lead ions in water has shown a wider range of application, but electrode film activity and preservation stability are still a major difficulty of electrode method, especially the preservation of nanomaterials is extremely unstable, they will become inefficient due to degeneration, degradation, or aggregation. This will greatly reduce the detection performance of the sensor.

5. Conclusions

Lead ions can easily enter the human body through contaminated water and food chain. Due to the non-degradability of lead, it is easy to accumulate in animals and plants. In severe cases, lead can lead to systemic diseases in humans, and ultimately pose a great threat to human health. The high content of lead in the environment can reduce the photosynthetic rate of plants and crop production. Therefore, it is imperative to accurately monitor the lead pollution in people’s daily living environment. This paper briefly introduces the harmful effects of lead ions and the emission limits of lead ions in various fields. The national standard detection methods of lead ion, such as atomic absorption spectrophotometry, electrochemical method, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, etc., are introduced. There are many methods for lead ion detection, and their applicable fields and test ranges are also different. Each method has its own advantages and disadvantages. Thus, in the actual test process, we should choose a more suitable test method according to different test conditions. When the content of lead in the sample and the sample volume are small, the spectral and electrochemical methods can be used to determine the content of lead. When the sample quantity is large or there is not enough detection budget, the dithizone color method can be selected for determination. A safer, greener, and more efficient pre-treatment technology is also one of the hot topics in the field of lead ion detection due to the complicated pre-treatment process during sample testing.

With the progress of science and technology, emerging detection technologies, such as the application of precious metal nanotechnology, paper-based microfluidic technology, synthesis technology of new fluorescent molecular probes, and new green and efficient electrochemical technology, also emerge in an endless stream.

Due to the high price of traditional detection technology and the complex extraction technology with a certain toxicity, the research of various new technologies is constantly developing in the direction of more economic, more portable, and more rapid. The future research directions of lead detection can be as follows: first, the direction of higher detection efficiency and measurement accuracy. The second is to reduce the pollutants produced in the experiment and use as few samples as possible to get as high accuracy as possible. The third is to develop towards a wider range of applications, such as air, soil, biomedicine, and so on. Fourth, it can be developed in the direction of reducing equipment costs, realizing real-time monitoring, and more portable and efficient testing. Therefore, the development trend of lead ion detection technology in the future must be lower equipment cost, more portable operation, more rapid and efficient, better stability, and higher accuracy.

Acknowledgments

We thank the Lohand Water Analysis Urban Enterprised High Technology Research Institute and the Experimental Teaching Center of Zhejiang University for providing the scientific research platform.

Funding Statement

This research was funded by the Provincial Natural Science Fund (LGN21C200017), School-Enterprise cooperation project (2023-KYY-513110-0001).

Author Contributions

D.W. and Y.H. were equal contributors as the first authors. Investigation, methodology, and writing—original draft, D.W. and Y.H.; writing review and editing, H.C. and X.Y. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Acute lead acetate induces neurotoxicity through decreased synaptic plasticity-related protein expression and disordered dendritic formation in nerve cells

  • Research Article
  • Published: 04 April 2022
  • Volume 29 , pages 58927–58935, ( 2022 )

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lead acetate experiments

  • Lingli Chen 1 , 2   na1 ,
  • Yuye Liu 1   na1 ,
  • Penghuan Jia 1 ,
  • Hongli Zhang 1 ,
  • Zhihong Yin 1 , 2 ,
  • Dongfang Hu 1 , 2 ,
  • Hongmei Ning 1 &
  • Yaming Ge 1  

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Lead (Pb) is a widespread environmental heavy metal that can damage the cerebral cortex and hippocampus, and reduce the learning and memory ability in humans and animals. In vivo and in vitro models of acute lead acetate exposure were established to further study the mechanism of neurons injury. In this study, 4-week-old female Kunming mice were randomly divided into four groups. Each group was treated with distilled water with different Pb concentrations (0, 2.4, 4.8 and 9.6 mM). Mice were killed, and brain tissues were collected to detect the changes in synaptic plasticity-related protein expression. Furthermore, Neuro-2A cells were treated with 0, 5, 25 and 50 μM lead acetate for 24 h to observe the changes in cell morphology and function. In in vivo experiment, results showed that the expression levels of cytoskeleton-associated and neural function-related proteins decreased in a dose-dependent manner in the mouse brain tissue. In in vitro experiment, compared with the control group, Pb treatment groups were observed with smaller and round cells, decreased cell density and number of synapses. In the Pb exposure group, the survival rate of nerve cells decreased evidently, and the permeability of the cell membrane was increased. Western blot results showed that the expression of cytoskeleton-associated and function-related proteins decreased gradually with increased Pb exposure dose. Confocal laser scanning microscopy results revealed the morphological and volumetric changes in Neuro-2A cells, and a dose-dependent reduction in the number of axon and dendrites. These results suggested that abnormal neural structures and inhibiting expression of synaptic plasticity-related proteins might be the possible mechanisms of Pb-induced mental retardation in human and animals, thereby laying a foundation for the molecular mechanism of Pb neurotoxicity.

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Lead-induced changes of cytoskeletal protein is involved in the pathological basis in mice brain, lead exposure impairs hippocampus related learning and memory by altering synaptic plasticity and morphology during juvenile period, alterations of synaptic proteins in the hippocampus of mouse offspring induced by developmental lead exposure, explore related subjects.

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the National Science Foundation of China (32002352), the Nature and Scientific Foundation of Henan Province in China (202300410165), the Key Research Projects in Colleges of Henan province (22A330001 and 22A230007) and the Scientific and Technological Foundation of Henan Province in China (212102110102).

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Lingli Chen and Yuye Liu contributed equally to this work.

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College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Institute of Science and Technology, Xinxiang, Henan, 453003, People’s Republic of China

Lingli Chen, Yuye Liu, Penghuan Jia, Hongli Zhang, Zhihong Yin, Dongfang Hu, Hongmei Ning & Yaming Ge

Postdoctoral Research and Development Base, Henan Institute of Science and Technology, Xinxiang, Henan, People’s Republic of China

Lingli Chen, Zhihong Yin & Dongfang Hu

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Lingli Chen contributed to design and data analysis, Yuye Liu wrote the manuscript, Penghuan Jia and Hongli Zhang carried out the experiments and collected the data, Zhihong Yin, Dongfang Hu and Hongmei Ning contributed to revise the manuscript, and Yaming Ge managed the project.

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Chen, L., Liu, Y., Jia, P. et al. Acute lead acetate induces neurotoxicity through decreased synaptic plasticity-related protein expression and disordered dendritic formation in nerve cells. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29 , 58927–58935 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-20051-1

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Received : 19 January 2022

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Issue Date : August 2022

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-20051-1

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    Lead. STAFFAN SKERFVING, INGVAR A. BERGDAHL, in Handbook on the Toxicology of Metals (Third Edition), 2007. 2.10 Cancer. Animal experiments have shown a tumorigenic effect of lead (Silbergeld et al., 2000).Hence, soluble lead salts, such as lead acetate and subacetate, have produced kidney and brain tumors, and lead phosphate kidney tumors, in rodents after oral or parenteral administration.

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    Lead (Pb) is a widespread environmental heavy metal that can damage the cerebral cortex and hippocampus, and reduce the learning and memory ability in humans and animals. In vivo and in vitro models of acute lead acetate exposure were established to further study the mechanism of neurons injury. In this study, 4-week-old female Kunming mice were randomly divided into four groups. Each group ...